London Guildhall University Fine Arts Society, lecture 22/10/98 Part 1 "Tuning down into the lowest reaches of the radio spectrum, particularly in night's shadow of the solar wind, the listener encounters a range of diverse phenomena, opening a window on a world alive with electrical activity. Whistling atmospherics from lightning and thermonuclear EMP ricochet along field lines of the magnetosphere, bouncing between hemispheres of the globe: storms crackle: biostatics whisper, hiss, and sigh: televisions scream: pylons and power loops drone and roar: military signals, the musical pulses of navigation systems, timecodes, and coded data broadcast deep beneath the sea. Time and space divided, live ‘vivisection' of particle physics, voices, map lines, weapons, mirrors hidden by the illusion of quiet." It can be productive to try to look beyond the pejorative associations of the word "noise", considered this word not only subjectively but also as defined, more academically, as those signals which interfere with effective communications, because the decision to do so potentially leads listeners towards exposure to phenomena of surprising complexity and importance. IBM technician Benoit Mandelbrot's observation of Escher-like infinite geometric self-similarity in the clustered noise peaks of fax line interference was an important precursor to his discovery of the most complex object ever in the history of mathematics. Beyond the familiar world of conventional broadcast transmissions, the medium of radio, specifically, offers potential for the synaesthetic extension of human nervous systems into the realm of electromagnetic activity ­ a parallel sensory universe alive with unfamiliar stimuli. For instance AT&T / Bell engineer Karl Jansky's interceptions of undifferentiated galactic radio noise now forms the basis of the entire modern science of radioastronomy ­ providing much of the observational data necessary to authenticate contemporary scientific cosmology. Similarly approximately 2% of the "white" noise, the familiar everyday radio hiss which is resolved by TV sets as static, is produced by residual energy from the microwave background ­ which is the electromagnetic echo of the big bang, of creation itself. Robert Helliwell's reproductions of the whistling radio signals observed by Heinrich Barkhausen led to Helliwell's use of these signals as geophysical probes, establishing the existence of and measuring the earth's magnetosphere in space. These whistlers, and the hiss, crackles and resonances radiated by lightning are identical to those broadcast during the genesis of life on earth ­ at the electrical ignition of the primordial soup. Attempts to harness the creative possibilities of radio, as an observational technique rather than as a medium for communication, although rare, are not unknown in the history of experimental culture and avant garde art ­ but have been overwhelmingly characterised by a fatalistic attitude to the challenges of radio science. Within the avant garde radio seems to have been limited to use either as a means of intruding into individuals' private telecommunications, or counterintuitively and metaphorically "blind", as a means of recording apparently random impulses emerging from some mysterious ethereal universe. Interactions between art and the sciences in general are frequently cited in creative circles ­ with the perceived kudos of technical terminology growing in direct relation to the self-evident, retentive banality of much of contemporary art. However these terminological innovations rarely extend deeper than referencing that form of "science" which is conceived as a purely rhetorical device ­ rhetoric designed to cosmetise essentially conventional expressive methods, rather than fundamentally extend the palette of raw materials and creative techniques. The trend in modern marketing towards generic low content products ­ sugarfree, sodiumfree, mild (diluted) shampoos, skimmed milk and alcohol free lager ­ has as much to do with the necessity for maintaining frenzied mass consumption in marketplaces that are approaching total saturation, as it has to do with any real concern for public health on the part of manufacturers. Decaffeinated coffee (coffee without any coffee in it) is nothing more than a form of inbuilt obsolescence which, by dazzling ideological subterfuge, escapes detection by already being useless before the conscious act of purchase. Rather than being a haven from these base commercial dynamics, low content high art is at the trailing edge of some of the most insidious developments in modern marketing, and therefore also in modern culture ­ with mainstream marketing being our culture's ideological laboratory and hence its authentic avant-garde. In the face of art's role in tailoring the Emperor's proverbial New Clothes, which is all too obvious to "ordinary" citizens, the interface between art and science offers the promise of artforms imbued with genuine, unambiguous, and unfashionably complex and tangible content. My own interest in this area stemmed from seeing a very brief item about radio signals produced by lightning in a TV documentary "Equinox: Electric Skies" broadcast in 1995. I instantly formed the hypothesis that through the study of radio it might be possible to access areas in which a language familiar to existing and potential consumers of a particular artform ­ esoteric sound publishing ­ might be reinvented. The intention was to research and develop audio products which offered listeners access to recordings that substantially extended their few existing precedents by exposing dramatically unfamiliar events. The plan was to record unusual impulses directly from the atmosphere itself ­ offering them for sale as an alternative to the formulaic solutions which are reproduced by both artists and also experimental musicians, often marketed by means of misleading allusions to scientific ideas and which rarely seem to involve much creative experimentation. The successful testing of this hypothesis offered a solution to a problem rooted in the dynamics of supply and demand ­ a generalised, supranational oversupply of artists in relation to an undersupply of distinctive, inspired work. Considering novel, unhabituated stimuli as a basic neurophysiological necessity, and relating its behavioural ramifications to questions of the socioeconomic and sensory effects of improved labour-saving technologies, near-saturated marketplaces and the proliferation of communications technologies, also offered a convenient bypass to the common preoccupation with irrelevant ideas of artistic integrity and their low-culture correlates in mass-produced authenticity. Adopting this strict reductionist stance, in stark contrast to the precepts and modus operandi of the established liberal arts movement, offered the creation of a potentially free space in which the prospective author could busy himself pursuing the serious business of ­ to paraphrase M C Escher ­ pursuing the extraordinary. However, this "conceptual provocation" ­ as described by the Italian magazine "Rumore" ­ was not just a question of defining personal taste, it translated into a definite challenge ­ how to realise this rather puritanical, fundamentalist approach as a recording? A practical point of entry was provided by the intense thunderstorms that swept southern England during the autumn of 1995. The first "Disinformation" track was a simple analogue cassette recording of longwave radio signals radiated by lightning strikes during a very close electrical electrical storm. This was published on the Ash International double compilation CD "A Fault in the Nothing". These clustered surges were, from the point of the view of the recording equipment, infinitely loud and arbitrarily short. All that was required was to suppress an instinct to protect the receiver from these brutal signals. The sound of this track, described by Vital magazine as "like the end of a record being slowly ground up by a blunt spike", seemed not so much a record of a phenomenon, as a record of the equipment's inability to accurately record it. A more recent, digitally recorded version, was described by the same magazine as sounding like "something very compacted cracking very slowly". Thunder is cross-culturally identified as "theophany" ­ the voice of God, and lightning as an instrument of divine intervention. The ancient Romans protected and consecrated points of lightning impact as "puteal", now known to archæologists and geophysicists alike as the source of fulgarites ­ subterranean wands composed of soil, sand, and stones fused into grotesquely twisted obsidian wands by the passage of lightning strikes into and through the earth itself. The anthropological and spiritual aspects of this concept contrast with the few, extraordinary, existing artworks which relate directly to atmospheric electrical phenomena ­ the paintings of John and Johnathan Martin, composer John Tavener's "Theophany" and sculptor Cornelia Parker's " Mass: Colder, Darker, Matter". Acoustically these sounds could not be less human, less similar to any familiar voice, or indeed the basso-profundo transposed in John Tavener's composition to express his interpretation of divinity ­ Tavener is a practising Orthodox Catholic. For convenience of comparison Tavener's "Theophany" was published on CD a few months after the first Disinformation track. Tavener is quoted in the sleeve notes to his "Eis Thanaton" CD as saying that he in imagining "Theophany" he "heard such strange sounds that I couldn't imagine them being created by human means". Nonetheless "human means" are exactly what "Theophany" producer Jeremy Birchall used to anthropomorphically articulate this strange concept ­ he used his own voice. Cornelia Parker's "Mass" is a stunning sculpture constructed from the charred remains of a Texan Baptist church which burned down after being struck by lightning ­ fragments of charcoal suspended on thin threads, arranged with intimidating precision in forensic reconstruction, as a ghost-image of a monolithic black cube: suspended in mid-air, black as death, shimmering like John Dee's obsidian starlight mirror. Co-opting the language invented by Cornelia Parker for her acoustic artworks ­ the Negatives of Sound ­ fulgarites become Negatives of Lightning, they are actually all positives, but maybe that's splitting hairs. Like John Tavener, Cornelia Parker is deeply influenced by Catholicism. Study of these lightning impulses ­ collectively known as "atmospherics" ­ often concentrates on the Very Low Frequency radio band, from 30kHz down to 300Hz, way below the conventional frequencies used to record "Theophany". The low frequency cut-off for domestic radios is usually around 150kHz. VLF waves are of little use for conventional broadcasts, this section of the electromagnetic spectrum being dominated by lightning noise, radio emissions from alternating current, and interference from the oscillators that resolve the data stream of TV broadcasts into viewable stacks of horizontal lines. After mailing a series of ignorant requests to various journalists at Shortwave Magazine, radio journalist Brain Oddy recommended purchasing a Datong VLF converter, which superimposes VLF signals onto the 28MHz band allocated for licensed amateur and CB radio. I borrowed a suitable radio, a Lafayette HA800, with a variable antenna-tuning facility built in, which enables users to optimise ultracrude home made antennas of almost any dimensions, such as the 30 metre wire borrowed from a builders' skip. With VLF radio experimental precision is often not crucial. Wire as short as 2 metres will produce results: copper pipes work well: the shielding layer in coaxial cable can be connected to an earth / ground to help suppress interference, however, "interference" was my major area of interest. This combination proved suitable for listening to ultralongwave data, navigation and timecode broadcasts ­ many of which are quite interesting in themselves. However, on the basis of my earliest longwave experiment, there was no evidence of activity that could be inferred as being produced by lightning. Luckily Joe Carr of the American magazine Communications Quarterly recommended contact with INSPIRE, the rather frighteningly-named Interactive NASA Space Physics Ionosphere Radio Experiments. As a result of Joe's recommendation I subsequently contributed ground observations to propagation tests of VLF signals radiated by the Istochnik/ Ariel "virtual" laser antenna aboard space-station MIR ­ organised by INSPIRE in association with NASA and the Russian space agency IKI. Their RS4 Natural Radio Receiver, which is available to members of the public, is sensitive from approximately 1 to 12kHz. In this lower portion of the VLF band below most data signals, lightning impulses propagate for thousands of miles. Signals bend around earth's curvature in a series of interconnecting zigzagged lines, bouncing between the sea, the earth's surface, and the reflective underside of that ionised atmospheric layer which prevents some radio frequencies from escaping into space. This ionosphere is sometimes referred to as the "radio mirror", whilst the upper and lower frequencies between which impulses escape most easily are known as "the microwave window". These microwave frequencies are used extensively used for radioastronomy and astroarchaeological research. Lightning radiates immense energy across almost all electromagnetic and optical spectra. The dynamics of the Very Low Frequency band mean that the RS4 is sensitive to a barrage of impulses from all over the world ­ the clicks and frequency-dispersed clonks of tropical storms, the whistles intermittently produced by lightning strikes red-shifting through space across semicircular arcs of the earth's magnetic field, and the sizzle of atmospheric charges accumulating in the build up to local electrical storms. These effects manifest with maximum intensity at dusk, at night, and at dawn ­ and will increase in frequency, strength and duration as we approach the apex of the current sunspot cycle. The reason none of the sizzling sounds referred to are recorded in any Disinformation track is because the consensus among radio scientists on what best to when they are heard is for the listener to abandon antenna and recording equipment and run. The radio mirror is most robust and reflective at night, midnight providing optimal shading from the solar wind ­ the mass of fast moving, highly electrically charged subatomic particles that continually surges out from the surface of the sun. The low frequency monotone imposed on VLF equipment by AC mains electricity also masks competing signals, so VLF atmospherics are best observed away from domestic mains and pylons ­ in other words out in the countryside at night. These nocturnal atmospherics are subject to distance-related doppler shifts, determined by the relationship between speed of impulse propagation and wavelength. Signals normally audible at higher radio frequencies as brief clicks resolve over long distances into liquiform tweeks, or metallic clonks, like the sound of a high-tension cable being struck, or shock waves travelling down a railway track ­ as lower audible frequencies decelerate relative to the high frequency sounds that accompany them. The RS4 is also sensitive to switch noise, automotive ignition, digital watch alarms and sometimes physical vibration. Of particular interest are signals which manifest during periods of ionospheric disruption, when the upper-atmosphere is battered by magnetic storms, atmospheric nuclear explosions, meteor showers, and spacecraft launches and re-entry. In these conditions lightning impulses or even, occasionally, Electromagnetic Pulses from atom bombs, escape perpendicular to the earth's core and engage with the curved field-lines of the geomagnetic field, arcing through space before they return along these field-lines to a geosynchronous point on the opposite hemisphere of the globe. The doppler- shift produced by this journey disperses component frequencies into whistling, sometimes breath-like tones. RS4 and Datong VLF converter recordings ­ the 12" EP, A side "Ghost Shells" or whistling atmospherics, B side "Data Storm" and the compact disc "R&D" ­ were published by Ash International, and remixed as Ash 3.4 double CD " Antiphony". Unfortunately, I eventually had to confront the inevitable, overwhelming statistical improbability of total artistic originality. Fortunately only a very few examples of publishing similar material seem to have preceded me ­ INSPIRE founder Mike Mideke's discontinued "Whistler Hunter's Guide" cassette and Alvin Lucier's LP "Spherics". Immerse magazine described Ghost Shells as "virtual silence" and Data Storm as "like landing in the middle of an electrical storm, blindfolded". London Guildhall University Fine Arts Society, lecture 22/10/98 Part 2 One of the most interesting properties of VLF radio proved to be the gulf between the capabilities of the Datong converter and the RS4. In principle they cover similar frequency bands, but in practice are sensitive to very different impulses. The output of the converter-radio combination is overwhelmed by noise from the alternating current. With the application of a little experimentation this outwardly horrendous disadvantage proved to be something of a creative asset. The Lafayette radio is fitted with what is effectively an audio pitch-shifter as standard. This upper and lower side- band filter, designed for tuning indecipherable morse code signals into intelligibility, allowed the musical tuning of the AC radiation based on its fundamental frequency of 50Hz ­ bear in mind that the musical note G three octaves below middle C is 49Hz. This facility enabled the fine-tuning of tonal harmonics across almost the entire audible frequency range, the generation of intermodulation effects ­ acoustic moiré patterns, also known as subharmonics, and, by adjusting the ratio of preamplifier and output volumes ­ harmonic distortion. The frequency of intermodulation effects can be tuned to mimic the rhythms of the human heart. In other words the radio transformed into a flexible musical instrument, drawing its core tone from from the electromagnetic fields radiated by throughout all urban environments. The live debut of this "National Grid" at club Disobey, accompanying the launch of a novel, was described by an MTV magazine as "heavy metal for the 22nd century... like you're trapped inside a washing machine on spin-cycle three minutes after the four minute warning goes off." Thanks to B&W Loudspeakers' generous loan of a pair of powerful active subwoofers, exhibiting this apparatus in the basement at the "Soundproofs" show at London's "Museum of Installation" gallery in July 1997 resonated the building above, dislodging masonry from the front of the building and, according to the gallery administrator, triggering car alarms in the street outside. National Grid is the ultimate realisation of the concept and spirit of the intonarumori, or noise machines, of Italian Futurism ­ drawing not on a stylised simulation of industrial processes, as historical precedent dictates, but directly upon electricity itself as both a real and metaphorical source of creative energy. A simplified version of the National Grid apparatus was recently exhibited at the end of a 150' foot long concrete tunnel inside a massive subterranean Faraday cage, the electrically absorbent architecture designed to protect one of Scotland's underground cold war command centres from the electrical shock-waves of atomic attack. So far as human society is concerned electrical force is a creature born in our own image. We identify electricity primarily with the technology that we ourselves have created to use it, and either de-emphasise, or are unaware of, its pervasive influence in the rest of the natural world. Responsible scientific speculation suggests that whilst we may not constitute an 'image' of atmospheric electrical activity, in any overtly figurative sense, nonetheless it is likely that life, including our own, would have never emerged without it. As mentioned earlier lightning is the causative agent in the primordial soup theory of the origin of life on earth. Signals radiated by lightning today are identical those broadcast at the moment of the electrical ignition of primeval life itself. Lightning continues as an essential precursor at the base of all ecosystems because of its fixation of atmospheric nitrogen ­ hence there is a strong geographical correlation between the intensity of atmospheric electrical activity and diversity of species found in the tropics. In our enthusiasm to conceptually 'de-nature' electrical events, we tend to project an image of complexity onto electrical research which is not necessarily warranted. One of the pleasures of radio science is its ability to reveal just what modest additions to the human sensory apparatus are needed to extend perception into entirely new realms of experience. Serious geophysical research can be conducted with a length of wire, a crystal earpiece, a tent peg, a couple of crocodile clips and a notebook. The history of solar observation also reveals profound discoveries made using basic techniques, often accompanied by astonishingly accurate measurement. A glass prism or thin slots cut in pieces of cardboard can be used for the spectrographic measurement of the elemental chemical composition of the sun ­ a thermonuclear furnace 93 million miles distant. A pin-prick aperture in the wall of a darkened box or room can be used to observe sunspots or eclipses indirectly, hence without the risk of serious injury. Similarly, given enough luck or patience, it's possible to detect some form of radio emission from the sun with virtually any radio receiver. Just as Galileo, who was an entrepreneur as much as a scientist, hoped to finance the pursuit of his own intellectual curiosities by selling his 'optik tube' to the military, great innovations are often motivated by complex, tragic, social forces ­ emerging from the milieu of a putative 'prehistory' of what's euphemistically referred to as the information war. Research into the whistling atmospherics phenomenon mentioned earlier received its initial impetus during the First World War. German signals intelligence operatives searching amplified earth electricity currents for discharges from the grounding circuits of Allied field telephones reported hearing what they described as 'ghosts' of artillery shells whistling across the battlefield. Army physicist Heinrich Barkhausen was commissioned to investigate: precipitating a body of research which ultimately lead to Robert Helliwell's use of these 'whistlers' to measure the dimensions and observe the properties of the earth's magnetosphere in space. When the first radio astronomer ­ Karl Jansky ­ discovered what he referred to as 'galactic radio noise' emanating from the Milky Way ­ the Native American "ghost trail to the spirit world" ­ in 1932, he was largely ignored. It was not until the explosion of investment in radio science brought about by the Second World War that specific extra-terrestrial sources were identified by mainstream science. In 1942 British Army physicist James Hey was asked to investigate huge rushing noises thought to be hostile jamming of British radar stations. Hey sourced these mysterious signals not from the German Army, but from the sun, observing a strong correlation between radio emission and sunspot activity. He was not able to report his findings publicly until 1946 when conditions of military secrecy were lifted. Some of the earliest experiments with extra-terrestrial solar observations were conducted soon afterwards using demobbed Luftwaffe V2 rockets commandeered by US Navy scientists at the core of what was subsequently to become NASA. Contemporary media consumers are conditioned to receive daunting images which unconsciously stress the overwhelming technical and mathematical complexity, no less the sheer physical scale of many important scientific projects ­ such as the vast Aricebo radio reflector in Puerto Rico. These images do little to promote the accessibility of the sciences. We may be familiar with the famous particle accelerator at CERN in Switzerland ­ which I believe is somewhere in the region of 24 miles-long, however it can be fruitful to remember that domestic television sets are particle accelerators too. Fortunately for under-resourced and mathematically inept observers such as myself, solar radio emissions are the loudest electromagnetic noise sources in the sky. They do not require particularly specialised or elaborate gear to pick them up. Just like lightning atmospherics it is quite likely that in fact everyone has heard them already. After all, when a burst of crackles or hissing sounds interrupt your TV show or radio programme, your natural instinct is to immediately tune out the interference and restore the quality of the broadcast signal. It requires a distinct logical inversion to regard ' interference' as the 'programme', and turn the dial in search of a free space where the atmospherics can be monitored on their own. When I initially approached the record company Ash International with the proposal for the 'Ghost Shells' EP I was given a battered, but functional, shortwave receiver ­ a Lafayette HA800 ­ on long-term loan. In some respects this radio is better than a typical modern scanner-type apparatus, such as the Realistic Pro2035 i'd previously bought from Tandy. The Lafayette has no automated signal strength or gain control ­ you can subtly adjust the input gain by hand. It tunes smoothly across a rotary dial ­ as opposed to jumping between pre-determined frequency steps: and it allows the operator to tune a random antenna. A 'random antenna' is a euphemism for whatever old bits of wire you can nick off a building site or a skip. Modern scanner antennas tend to have a strictly defined geometry determined by the wavelengths of their target frequencies. A more flexible, powerful ­ in terms of signal gain, and crucially ­ cheaper approach is to attach as much wire as you can cobble together, say 50-100', and tune it manually using either such built-in circuitry, or a separate tuner box which can be made for a few quid or purchased from radio ham suppliers for a few more. If you can be bothered to clean off the ubiquitous bird shit, then discarded Yagi antennas ­ named after Japanese electrical engineer Hidetsugu Yagi ­ of the bog standard TV type are regular skip freebies, and are ideal for higher frequencies. The Lafayette 's frequency readout is very crude, and it's extremely sensitive to local switch noise. It's also the radio I used to listen to the sun. In January 1996 I tuned into a mysterious sound that appeared temporarily at about 4Mhz. At that time I had no reason to suspect it wasn't some form of corrupted data broadcast. Its' effect was deeply hypnotic ­ sounding like the rumble and whoosh of rollers breaking across a celestial beach. In February Ron Ham & Arthur Gee wrote an extremely informative article on 'Solar Radio Astronomy' for Shortwave Magazine, describing a tradition of disciplined semi-amateur research reaching back as far as the 1930s. Ron Ham recommends that observers stick to a strict observational routine ­ monitoring a chosen frequency for several hours a day. In my case I was blessed with enormous luck. I immediately guessed from his description of solar noise storms' characteristic "seashore effect" that this was the phenomenon I had already heard. In March my first attempt to renew the search, prompted by the highly scientific observation that it was a nice sunny day, was immediately rewarded by a huge swathe of solar noise roaring into the Lafayette at 13.8MHz: accompanied by the parallel 2nd harmonic ­ characteristic of a so called Type II radioemission ­ at approximately 7.3MHz. That morning's recordings were plagued by local interference. However 2 virtually click-free portions, of 6.5 and 14.5 minutes respectively, were eventually released on vinyl as Disinformation's "Stargate" LP, Ash 3.2, side A. I sent tapes to the authors of the SWM article ­ Arthur Gee kindly authenticated my observation and asked if he could use the tape, which also contained samples of my VLF recordings, to demonstrate solar radio noise to astronomers. It seems that these emissions are closely associated with particularly foul weather in sun's atmosphere. It should be stressed there is no absolute scientific consensus on the processes involved, and my grasp of particle physics is not perfect to say the very least. The sun continuously emits solar wind, consisting of a physical substance ­ plasma. Plasma is a mixture of electrons and protons, boiled off by the heat of the sun, so hot that its component particles are dissociated from familiar atomic structure and highly electrically charged. Plasma is a fourth state of matter ­ solid, liquid and gas being the other three Solar wind streams around the earth's own magnetic field like smoke drifting past a wing in a wind tunnel. Regions of particularly intense turbulence in the solar atmosphere force fields of mutually-repellent magnetic polarity to knot together, before they resolve themselves in a violent elastic reflex. This reflex motion seems to displace a shock wave which pushes solar flares and plasma high above the sun's atmosphere. While solar flares either dissipate in space or are drawn back to the surface of the sun, plasma shock-waves surge outward, increasing the mass and velocity of the solar wind. On impact the earth's magnetosphere warps like a tennis ball being hit with a hammer. The results are varying intensities of magnetic storm. Powerlines blow as direct current transients induce in alternating current distribution grids and submarine cables: ionospheric disruption distorts or obliterates radio communications, Global Positioning System reception and television: satellites malfunction and drift off course: impulses in astronauts' nerves misfire: aurora intensify in the skies: VLF whistlers echo across the nightside of the globe: it has even been argued that electrical accumulations in the metal structures of gas-pipelines and petrochemicals storage have caused explosions claiming hundreds of lives. Whilst the shock wave, or Coronal Mass Ejection, may take anything from 6 to 40 hours to reach earth, its emergence through the upper layers of the sun's atmosphere 'rattles' local plasma exciting a radio emission which reaches earth at the speed of light. At this speed the journey to earth takes just over 8 minutes. It is hoped that the careful monitoring of these signals will provide an early-warning system for magnetic storms, and analysis of the signals' content will provide important information about the size and speed of approaching Coronal Mass Ejections. Coronal Mass Ejection frequency is closely allied to the appearance of sunspots. As mentioned before, the next maximum of the sunspot cycle in predicted for sometime during the year 2000. It has even been suggested that because the of the disruptive effect of these phenomena on radar systems, a hostile power might choose a moment such as this as the best opportunity to initiate a nuclear war. Bibliography [1] W. Ross Adey "The Origins of Life on Earth and a Possible Role of the Geophysical Environment" in Hiroshi Matsumoto (ed.) "Modern Radio Science 1993", U.R.S.I. / O.U.P. 1993. [2] Joseph Carr "Radioscience Observation" Shortwave Magazine 11/94, 12/94, and 1/95. [3] Robert Helliwell "Forty Years of Whistlers" in Matsumoto, op cit. [4] Robert Helliwell "Whistlers and Related Ionospheric Phenomena" Stanford University Press 1965. [5] Michael Mideke "A Whistler Hunter's Guide", private edition, date unknown. [6] John Tavener "Theophany" on "Eis Thanaton", Chandos Digital CD, Chan 9440. [7] Donald Tuzin "The Auditory Experience of Numinous Objects" Current Anthropology vol. 25 #5 1984. [8] Martin A Uman "Lightning", McGraw-Hill Advanced Physics Monographs 1969. [9] Kenneth Phillips "Solar Spectroscopy" in "The History Of Solar Observation", chapter 1 of "Guide To The Sun", Rutherford Appleton Laboratory / C.U.P. 1992. [10] J L Pawsey & R N Bracewell "Solar Radio Waves", chapter 5 in "Radio Astronomy" O.U.P. 1955. [11] Robert Newman on Karl Jansky, Shortwave Magazine 2/96. [12] D A Whitaker on the sunspot cycle, Shortwave Magazine 2/96. [13] Hazel Muir "Watch Out, Here Comes The Sun" New Scientist February 1996. [14] "Survey of Available Information on Galactic and Solar Radiations at Radio Frequencies" War Office 1947. [15] "Some Characteristics of Solar Radio Emission" War Office 1948. © Joe Banks 1998 **************************************************** Joe Banks mailto:joe.banks@getty-images.com *****************************************************